Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?

1. Avanti — Avanti was a Mahajanapada contemporary to the Buddha, but it is not generally listed as a kingdom directly associated with the major events of Buddha’s life in standard UPSC framing. Verdict: Incorrect.

2. Gandhara — Gandhara was also a contemporary Mahajanapada, but it is not associated with the Buddha’s life events such as birth, enlightenment, first sermon, or mahaparinirvana. Verdict: Incorrect.

3. Kosala — Clearly associated; Buddha spent long periods at Shravasti in Kosala, and King Prasenajit was his contemporary. Verdict: Correct.

4. Magadha — Clearly associated; Bimbisara and Ajatashatru were linked with Buddha, and places like Rajagriha and Bodh Gaya lie in Magadha. Verdict: Correct.

So only 3 and 4 are correct. My earlier inclusion of Avanti was too broad; UPSC is asking for kingdoms directly associated with Buddha’s life, not merely contemporary Mahajanapadas.