UPSC current affairs, 21-27 Sep, 2026

Why in the news

• The Chief Ministers of Chhattisgarh and Odisha discussed resolving the Mahanadi water dispute.
• Chhattisgarh stated that both States were willing to accept a decision facilitated by the Centre and the Central Water Commission.
• Opposition parties in Odisha questioned whether the State’s downstream interests would be adequately protected.

About the Mahanadi

• The Mahanadi originates in the Sihawa hills of Chhattisgarh and flows through Odisha into the Bay of Bengal.
• The Hirakud Dam in Odisha is a major multipurpose project on the river.
• Its basin supports irrigation, drinking-water supply, industry, hydropower and ecologically important coastal and delta regions.

Origin of the dispute

• Odisha argues that dams and barrages constructed upstream in Chhattisgarh reduce non-monsoon flows into Hirakud and the Mahanadi delta.
• Chhattisgarh maintains that a large part of the river’s catchment lies within its territory and that it is entitled to use the water for its development.
• Odisha invoked the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act in 2016. After negotiations failed, the Union government constituted the Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal in 2018. Ministry of Jal Shakti background

Constitutional framework

• Article 262 allows Parliament to provide for adjudication of inter-State river disputes.
• Entry 17 of the State List covers water, subject to Entry 56 of the Union List, under which Parliament can regulate inter-State rivers in the public interest.
• The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 provides for tribunals when negotiations fail.
• The Central Water Commission is primarily a technical body; it is distinct from a statutory water-disputes tribunal.

Issues and way forward

• A settlement needs reliable real-time flow data, transparent project information and an agreed method for sharing lean-season water.
• Basin management must account for irrigation, urban demand, industrial use, environmental flows and climate variability.
• Political agreement may accelerate resolution, but it should be formalised through a legally durable and scientifically supported arrangement.
• The dispute illustrates cooperative federalism: rivers must be managed as common basins rather than exclusively as State resources.

Why in the news

• Karnataka’s Food Safety and Drugs Administration cancelled 16 licences and suspended eight others while investigating an alleged medicine repacking and relabelling racket.
• Low-cost or expired medicines were allegedly placed in new containers and sold as expensive, life-saving products.
• The suspected distribution network reportedly extended to hospitals and clinics, raising questions about procurement and supply-chain oversight.

Important distinctions

• A spurious drug falsely claims another drug’s identity or manufacturer, imitates another product, or substitutes its contents. It is defined under Section 17B of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940.
• An adulterated drug contains harmful, contaminated or insanitary substances.
• A not-of-standard-quality drug fails prescribed quality tests but is not necessarily counterfeit.
• An expired drug has crossed its approved shelf life. Changing its expiry date can also amount to fraud and misbranding.

Regulatory structure

• The Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 and the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945 regulate import, manufacture, distribution and sale.
• CDSCO and the Drugs Controller General of India handle important central functions, including new drugs, imports and coordination.
• State licensing authorities regulate manufacturing and sale establishments, conduct inspections, collect samples and initiate enforcement action.
• This division makes Centre-State coordination essential when a racket crosses State boundaries. CDSCO enforcement guidelines

Why spurious drugs are especially dangerous

• A patient may receive no active ingredient, an incorrect dose, a toxic substitute or a contaminated medicine.
• Fake ICU, cancer or emergency medicines can cause immediate death or treatment failure.
• Counterfeit antimicrobials may contribute to antimicrobial resistance.
• Repeated incidents damage trust in India’s pharmaceutical exports.

Required reforms

• Introduce interoperable batch-level track-and-trace systems covering manufacturers, distributors, pharmacies and hospitals.
• Strengthen drug-testing laboratories, inspectorates and rapid-alert mechanisms.
• Audit hospital procurement and require verification of suppliers and invoices.
• Establish effective recall systems and coordinated inter-State investigations.
• QR codes can assist verification, but they are insufficient if labels themselves are forged or databases are not updated.

Why in the news

• Groups demanding rollback of the UGC’s 2026 equity regulations called off a proposed protest after meeting Union Ministers.
• The government sought time to examine their objections.
• The debate intensified following allegations of caste discrimination associated with the death of a student at IIT Bombay.

What the regulations provide

• The regulations supersede the 2012 framework and apply to higher education institutions across India.
• They seek to prevent discrimination based on religion, race, caste, gender, place of birth and disability.
• Institutions must establish an Equal Opportunity Centre and an Equity Committee.
• Other mechanisms include a round-the-clock Equity Helpline, online complaint portal, Equity Squads and Equity Ambassadors.
• The Equity Committee must meet within 24 hours of receiving information, ordinarily submit its report within 15 working days, and provide for an appeal to the Ombudsperson.
• Institutions must publish periodic information on complaints, demographic composition and dropout rates. Official UGC regulations

Constitutional basis

• Article 14 guarantees equality before law and equal protection of laws.
• Article 15 prohibits discrimination on specified grounds and permits special provisions for disadvantaged groups.
• Article 17 abolishes untouchability.
• Article 21 protects life and dignity.
• Article 46 directs the State to protect weaker sections, particularly Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, from social injustice and exploitation.
• UGC exercises regulation-making powers under the UGC Act, 1956.

Significance

• Institutional mechanisms can make complaints easier to report and reduce dependence on informal administrative discretion.
• Representation, confidentiality, time-bound inquiry and protection against retaliation are important for complainant confidence.
• Collection of dropout and complaint data may expose structural patterns otherwise hidden within institutions.

Concerns

• Procedures must protect complainants without compromising natural justice and fair inquiry.
• Institutions require trained personnel rather than merely creating committees on paper.
• The role of the institution’s head in a committee may create conflict-of-interest concerns in some cases.
• Definitions, institutional representation, penalties and the possibility of misuse have generated competing objections.

Status caveat

• The UGC website presents these as notified regulations published on January 13, 2026. The newspaper reports that their operation was stayed by the Supreme Court. Their enforceability should therefore be treated as subject to the latest judicial order.

Why in the news

• A study published in Diabetes Care examined how India lowered the prices of newer diabetes medicines and whether other low- and middle-income countries could learn from its experience.

Modern diabetes therapies

• GLP-1 receptor agonists improve glucose control, reduce appetite and may provide cardiovascular benefits.
• SGLT2 inhibitors cause excess glucose to be excreted through urine and can protect the heart and kidneys in suitable patients.
• Analogue insulin is engineered to provide more predictable action and reduce some forms of hypoglycaemia.
• These medicines may offer benefits beyond older therapies but are often considerably more expensive.

Factors that lowered prices in India

• India has a large generic pharmaceutical industry and significant domestic manufacturing capacity.
• Patent safeguards seek to prevent repeated minor modifications from indefinitely extending monopoly protection. Generic entry must nevertheless respect valid patents and licensing rules.
• Entry of several manufacturers after lawful market opening increases competition and reduces prices.
• Domestic production of active pharmaceutical ingredients can reduce exposure to imported raw-material disruptions.
• Jan Aushadhi Kendras expand the distribution of affordable generic medicines. PMBJP background
• Medicines placed in the National List of Essential Medicines can be subjected to ceiling-price regulation under the Drug Price Control Order.

NLEM distinction

• Metformin and sulfonylureas remain important, inexpensive treatments and are included in the NLEM.
• The report noted that DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists were not then included in the NLEM.
• NLEM inclusion is based on public-health need, evidence, safety and cost-effectiveness—not merely novelty.

Remaining concerns

• Affordability does not guarantee access: rural distribution and specialist availability remain uneven.
• Generic and biosimilar quality requires strong regulation and pharmacovigilance.
• Excessive price pressure may weaken incentives for difficult research, while weak competition can keep prices high.
• Government schemes must be evaluated for health outcomes, not only the number of outlets or medicines sold.
• Diabetes requires lifelong monitoring, diet and lifestyle management; cheaper medicines alone cannot control the disease burden.

Why in the news

• Tamil Nadu announced a programme to reduce salt consumption through dietary measurement, public procurement, awareness and hypertension-control measures.
• The plan includes a urine-based consumption survey, gradual reduction of salt in government kitchens and examination of lower-sodium substitutes.

Salt and sodium

• Sodium is necessary for nerve transmission, fluid balance and muscle function.
• Excess sodium causes the body to retain water, increasing blood volume and pressure on arterial walls.
• Long-term excess intake raises the risk of hypertension, stroke, heart disease and kidney damage.
• Salt and sodium are not identical: five grams of salt contain about two grams of sodium.
• WHO recommends less than five grams of salt per adult per day. WHO sodium guidance

Tamil Nadu’s proposed strategy

• Measure actual consumption through urine samples rather than relying only on dietary recall.
• Gradually reduce salt in meals served through ICDS centres, hostels, hospitals and the Nutritious Meal Programme.
• Improve package-label awareness and encourage people to taste food before adding salt.
• Use community health programmes, including Makkalai Thedi Maruthuvam, for screening, counselling and treatment of hypertension.

Lower-sodium salt substitutes

• These products replace part of sodium chloride with potassium chloride.
• They can help reduce blood pressure but are not suitable for everyone.
• Excess potassium can cause hyperkalaemia, especially among people with kidney impairment or those taking medicines that reduce potassium excretion.
• WHO’s recommendation applies to adults in the general population and excludes children, pregnant women and people with impaired potassium excretion. WHO guideline

Policy significance

• Effective salt reduction needs food reformulation, nutrition labelling, healthier public procurement and action on processed foods.
• Gradual reduction is less noticeable to consumers and may be more sustainable than abrupt restrictions.
• Continued use of adequately iodised salt must be ensured so that sodium reduction does not weaken iodine-deficiency control.
• Population-level prevention can reduce the future fiscal burden of cardiovascular and kidney diseases.

Why in news

• The Maharashtra government indicated that drought conditions could be declared across the State after assessing deficient rainfall, crop damage, soil moisture and water availability.
• A formal declaration enables targeted relief measures; it is not merely a description of low rainfall.

Understanding drought

• Meteorological drought: Rainfall remains substantially below the normal level.
• Agricultural drought: Soil moisture becomes inadequate for crops.
• Hydrological drought: Reservoirs, rivers and groundwater record prolonged depletion.
• Socio-economic drought: Water shortage begins affecting livelihoods, food production and economic activity.

How drought is assessed

• Rainfall deficiency alone is insufficient.

• Governments also examine:

  • length of dry spells;
  • area under sowing;
  • crop condition and expected yield;
  • soil-moisture indicators;
  • reservoir and groundwater levels;
  • remote-sensing information; and
  • field verification.

Relief framework

• Drought is a notified disaster eligible for relief under the State Disaster Response Fund.
• The National Disaster Response Fund supplements State resources when a disaster is assessed as severe and the SDRF is insufficient.
• Relief may cover drinking-water supply, cattle camps, fodder transport, employment support and input assistance for damaged crops.
• Disaster relief is different from crop-insurance compensation or a general loan waiver. Each follows separate eligibility rules.

Significance

• A timely declaration allows relief to begin before rural distress turns into migration, livestock loss or indebtedness.
• Long-term drought management requires watershed restoration, groundwater regulation, micro-irrigation, drought-resistant crops and better reservoir management.

Why in news

• A new checklist recorded 3,261 flowering-plant species, 26 subspecies and 28 varieties belonging to 1,139 genera and 190 families.

Important findings

• Around 1,018 recorded taxa are endemic to India, including 245 narrow-range taxa.
• The flora shares 347 taxa with Sri Lanka, reflecting geological, climatic and biogeographical connections.
• The checklist provides a baseline for monitoring habitat loss, invasive species and climate-driven changes.

About the reserve

• It lies in the southern Western Ghats across Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• It includes Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney wildlife sanctuaries and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
• It joined UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2016.

Significance

• Narrow-range species may disappear if a single specialised habitat is damaged.
• Conservation must therefore be habitat-specific and coordinated between Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Why in news

• Karnataka instructed marriage-registration officials not to treat Aadhaar as proof of the bride’s or groom’s age.
• Officials must instead rely on documents such as birth or school certificates. A medical certificate may be considered where documentary proof is unavailable.

Identity is different from age

• Aadhaar primarily establishes the identity of a person through authentication.

• The date of birth in Aadhaar may have been:

  • verified through a supporting document;
  • declared by the resident; or
  • approximated from the person’s stated age.

• Therefore, Aadhaar cannot automatically establish that the recorded date of birth is legally correct.

• UIDAI has expressly clarified that Aadhaar, by itself, is not proof of date of birth.

Connection with child marriage

• Under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006:

  • a male below 21 years is a child; and
  • a female below 18 years is a child.

• Using an unreliable age record could permit child marriages or wrongly prevent lawful marriages.

• Registration authorities must therefore verify age through legally acceptable documents.

Important distinctions

• Aadhaar is not conclusive proof of:

  • date of birth;
  • citizenship;
  • domicile; or
  • entitlement to every government benefit.

• It is an identity number, not a universal certificate for every legal fact about its holder.

Why in news

• The Supreme Court held that an arrested person is entitled to immediate release when the grounds of arrest are not communicated in writing and in a language the person understands.
• The rule applies across criminal law, including special statutes dealing with terrorism and money laundering.

Constitutional safeguards

• Article 22(1):

  • the arrested person must be informed of the grounds of arrest;
  • the person cannot be denied the right to consult and be defended by a lawyer of choice.

• Article 22(2):

  • the arrested person must be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours, excluding necessary travel time.

• These protections ensure that the person can challenge the arrest and seek legal assistance.

Effect of non-compliance

• An arrest made without communicating its grounds is constitutionally invalid.
• A later chargesheet, remand order or court cognisance cannot retrospectively cure the original violation.
• Release on this ground is not an acquittal. Investigation may continue, and a lawful rearrest may be possible if the required procedure is followed.

Why written grounds matter

• Oral information is difficult to verify.

• Written grounds allow the accused, lawyer and court to examine:

  • the alleged offence;
  • the factual basis for arrest;
  • whether statutory conditions were met; and
  • whether the arrest was necessary.

Significance

• Special criminal laws may impose stricter bail conditions, but they do not eliminate constitutional safeguards.
• The judgment reinforces the principle that procedure is itself part of personal liberty—not a technical formality.

Why in news

• Researchers studying Indian clinical samples found that Candida auris can survive medicines by duplicating parts of its genetic material and, in some cases, creating an additional chromosome.

What is Candida auris?

• It is a fungus that can live on human skin and spread in hospitals.
• In vulnerable patients, it can enter the bloodstream and cause a serious infection.
• It is difficult to control because it can survive on surfaces and resist several antifungal medicines.

The resistance mechanism—in simple terms

• An antifungal medicine attacks a particular part of the fungal cell.
• The fungus may develop a mutation that changes the medicine’s target.
• The new study found an additional method: the fungus can make extra copies of protective genes.
• It is similar to giving the fungus several backup copies of the same defence instruction.

Genes involved

• Extra copies of ERG11 can reduce the effectiveness of azole medicines.
• Changes in FKS1 can cause resistance to echinocandins, which attack the fungal cell wall.
• Extra chromosome material can also help the fungus resume growth even at high drug concentrations—called paradoxical growth or the Eagle effect.

Why it matters

• A laboratory test that checks only common mutations may miss resistance produced by larger chromosome changes.
• Treatment should therefore be guided by proper susceptibility testing rather than routine assumptions.
• Hospitals need strong infection control, surveillance and careful antifungal use.

Why in the news

• The United States initiated a Section 301 investigation covering India and 15 other economies over alleged structural excess production capacity. This could complicate negotiations for an India–U.S. trade agreement.

What is Section 301?

• Section 301 of the U.S. Trade Act, 1974 authorises the U.S. Trade Representative to investigate foreign policies considered discriminatory, unreasonable or burdensome to American commerce.
• An investigation does not itself impose a penalty. It involves consultations, evidence collection and a formal determination.
• If an adverse finding is made, the U.S. may impose tariffs, restrict imports or negotiate corrective measures.
• It is a unilateral U.S. trade-law mechanism, unlike the WTO’s multilateral dispute-settlement process.

Structural excess capacity

• It occurs when an industry can produce substantially more than sustainable domestic and global demand.
• Continued production may lead to very low-priced exports, falling international prices, pressure on competing manufacturers and allegations of unfair state support.
• The investigation covers sectors including steel, petrochemicals, vehicles and other manufacturing industries.

Implications for India

• New tariffs could affect Indian exports and supply chains, while the investigation may become a bargaining issue in bilateral trade negotiations.
• India can contest unsupported allegations and distinguish genuine competitiveness from subsidised overproduction.
• Any unilateral tariff action may also be tested against WTO rules.
• The investigation covers several economies and does not establish that India has already violated a trade rule.

Why in the news

• A study highlighted that groundwater depletion in Punjab does not affect all farmers equally. Wealthier farmers are generally better equipped to drill deeper borewells, while small and tenant farmers face growing irrigation costs and insecurity.

Why groundwater is declining

• Punjab’s rice–wheat cropping pattern requires intensive irrigation.
• Assured procurement and Minimum Support Prices encourage water-intensive paddy cultivation.
• Subsidised or free farm electricity reduces the immediate cost of pumping.
• Canal irrigation has declined or remains unreliable in several areas.
• Groundwater is being extracted faster than aquifers can naturally recharge.

Groundwater assessment

• An assessment unit is classified as safe, semi-critical, critical or over-exploited by comparing annual extraction with available recharge.
• Depletion is also a question of equity: large landholders can install powerful submersible pumps and deepen wells, while small farmers may depend on purchased water or borrowed equipment.
• Tenant farmers pay for irrigation but often cannot access land-linked subsidies. Falling water tables therefore increase costs and indebtedness unevenly.

Way forward

• Punjab needs crop diversification, restoration of canals, groundwater budgeting, efficient irrigation and procurement support for less water-intensive crops.
• Policies must protect small, tenant and landless cultivators; otherwise, conservation measures could deepen existing inequalities.

Why in the news

• Political leaders in Mizoram expressed concern that a Uniform Civil Code could affect the customary laws, social practices and land rights of the Mizo people.

Uniform Civil Code

• A UCC would establish common civil rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and adoption, irrespective of religion.
• Article 44 directs the State to endeavour to secure a UCC, but it is a Directive Principle and is not directly enforceable.

Special protection for Mizoram

• Article 371G provides that a parliamentary law concerning Mizo religious and social practices, customary law and procedure, civil and criminal justice involving customary law, or ownership and transfer of land does not automatically apply to Mizoram unless its Legislative Assembly decides otherwise.
• The provision emerged from the Mizoram Peace Accord and the State’s distinctive constitutional settlement.
• Article 371G is distinct from the Sixth Schedule. The Sixth Schedule governs autonomous district councils in certain tribal areas; Article 371G protects specified practices and laws across Mizoram.

Constitutional balance

• The debate requires reconciliation of equality and gender justice with individual rights, tribal identity, federalism and constitutionally protected customary autonomy.

Why in the news

• India joined the launch of the Partners for Multilateralism initiative during the UN General Assembly’s High-Level Week and advanced its candidature for a non-permanent UN Security Council seat for 2028–29.

About P4M

• Full name: Partners for Multilateralism, International Law, Peace and Prosperity.
• Nature: A flexible political initiative, not a treaty-based international organisation.
• Launched: September 21, 2026, on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly.
• Initial co-sponsors: Australia, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, India, Kenya and the European Union.
• Objectives: Defend international law, strengthen multilateral cooperation and reform international institutions so that they better represent contemporary realities.
• Its agenda covers peace and security, sustainable development, shared prosperity, human dignity and human rights.

Structure and decision-making

• P4M has no permanent headquarters, treaty, secretariat or enforcement authority.
• It is not a UN organ, although it was launched during the UNGA session.
• No separate categories of formal members or observers have been announced.
• Cooperation rests on political consultation and joint declarations rather than legally binding votes.

India’s interest

• India can use P4M to support Security Council reform, wider representation for developing countries, rule-based cooperation and Global South priorities such as development finance and technology access.

India and the Security Council

• The UNSC has 15 members: five permanent members and ten members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Five elected seats are filled each year according to regional distribution. India is seeking an Asia-Pacific seat for 2028–29. Current UNSC composition
• P4M must not be confused with BRICS or the G20. It presently has neither their established membership structure nor recurring institutional machinery.
• Its influence will depend on whether it develops sustained coordination beyond political declarations.

Why in the news

• Rajya Sabha elections renewed attention to the indirect election process, the Single Transferable Vote and the possibility of cross-voting.

How members are elected

• Representatives of States are elected by the elected members of their respective Legislative Assemblies.
• The election follows proportional representation through the Single Transferable Vote.
• MLAs rank candidates according to preference rather than casting a simple vote for only one person.
• A candidate must reach a prescribed quota based on the number of valid votes and seats being filled.
• Votes exceeding the quota, or belonging to eliminated candidates, may be transferred according to later preferences.

Open-ballot system

• An MLA belonging to a political party must ordinarily show the marked ballot to the party’s authorised agent. The ballot must not be shown to an unauthorised person.
• The anti-defection law does not automatically disqualify an MLA merely for voting against the party’s Rajya Sabha candidate because this is not a vote within the House. The party may nevertheless take disciplinary action.

Nature of the House

• The Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and cannot be dissolved.
• Members ordinarily serve six-year terms, with approximately one-third retiring every two years.

Why in the news

• Reports claimed that Election Commissioners Sukhbir Singh Sandhu and Vivek Joshi recorded objections or concerns regarding several decisions, including the Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls.
• The Election Commission maintained that its decisions were lawful and unanimous, describing internal notes and technical suggestions as routine institutional checks.

Constitutional position

• Article 324 vests the superintendence, direction and control of elections in the Election Commission of India.
• The ECI consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and such other Election Commissioners as the President may appoint.
• In a multi-member Commission, decisions should preferably be unanimous. When unanimity is impossible, the matter is decided by majority.
• Under the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023, appointments are made by the President on the recommendation of a committee comprising the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha. CEC and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023

Special Intensive Revision

• SIR involves a comprehensive verification and revision of electoral rolls rather than a routine annual update.
• Its purpose is to include eligible citizens and remove deceased, shifted, duplicate or otherwise ineligible entries.
• Concerns arise when documentation requirements are unclear, implementation is rushed or large-scale deletion creates a risk of disenfranchisement.

Issues involved

• Recording and publishing dissent can improve institutional accountability without compromising necessary confidentiality.
• A perception that decisions are centralised around the CEC may weaken confidence in the Commission’s collective character.
• Internal disagreement alone does not establish that final decisions were unlawful.
• Transparent procedures, reasoned orders and disclosure of whether important decisions were unanimous or decided by majority can strengthen public confidence.

Why in the news

• The Delhi High Court sought the Union government’s response to a petition questioning the large difference between vacancies advertised for men and women in the Territorial Army.
• The challenge concerns equality in the number of opportunities offered, rather than women’s basic eligibility to join.

About the Territorial Army

• The Territorial Army is a voluntary, part-time military force that supplements the regular Army during emergencies and other operational requirements.
• It allows gainfully employed citizens to serve while continuing in their civilian professions.
• Members undergo military training and can be embodied for military service when required.

Legal background

• Section 6 of the Territorial Army Act, 1948 deals with eligibility for enrolment.
• In Kush Kalra v. Union of India in 2018, the Delhi High Court held that excluding women merely because they were women was contrary to the statute and constitutional equality. Delhi High Court judgment
• Articles 14, 15 and 16 protect equality, prohibit sex-based discrimination and guarantee equality of opportunity in public employment.
• Present Territorial Army eligibility rules allow both male and female citizens to apply.

Significance

• Formal eligibility has limited value if women receive only a token number of vacancies.
• Different recruitment numbers may be justified only through objective requirements such as unit structure, operational needs and available infrastructure, not through stereotypes.
• The case could clarify whether equality requires only permission to compete or also a fair and proportionate opportunity to enter the service.

Why in the news

• The Supreme Court considered allegations that the Lok Sabha Speaker had delayed deciding disqualification petitions against MPs accused of abandoning their original party.
• The Court did not impose a fresh fixed deadline but recorded that the concerned MPs would submit their replies within four weeks.

Tenth Schedule

• The anti-defection law was added through the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985.
• A legislator may be disqualified for voluntarily giving up membership of the political party on whose ticket they were elected.
• Disqualification may also follow if a member votes or abstains contrary to the party whip without prior permission and the action is not condoned within 15 days.
• An independent member is disqualified for joining a political party after election. A nominated member may join one within six months of taking their seat.
• The merger exception applies when at least two-thirds of the members of a legislature party agree to the merger.

Who decides?

• The Speaker or Chairman of the House decides disqualification petitions.
• In Kihoto Hollohan, the Supreme Court upheld the anti-defection law but made the presiding officer’s decision subject to judicial review.
• Review is possible in cases involving mala fides, constitutional violations, perversity or breach of natural justice.

Question of delay

• In Keisham Meghachandra Singh in 2020, the Supreme Court said petitions should ordinarily be decided within three months unless exceptional circumstances exist.
• Long delays can allow a member facing disqualification to vote, influence governments or complete most of the legislative term.
• Courts must balance timely adjudication with the Speaker’s constitutional jurisdiction and the need to hear affected members.

Why in the news

• Justice Dipankar Datta defended the collegium system and rejected the simplified claim that it allows judges alone to appoint judges.
• He also raised concerns about the Union government delaying or selectively approving judicial recommendations.

How the collegium evolved

• Articles 124 and 217 provide for the appointment of Supreme Court and High Court judges by the President after consultation with constitutional authorities.
• The collegium is not expressly mentioned in the Constitution. It developed through the First, Second and Third Judges Cases.
• The Second Judges Case, 1993 gave the judiciary primacy in appointments. The 1998 Presidential Reference expanded the consultation requirement.
• The 99th Constitutional Amendment and the National Judicial Appointments Commission were struck down by the Supreme Court in 2015.

Composition and process

• For Supreme Court appointments, the collegium consists of the CJI and four senior-most Supreme Court judges.
• High Court appointments begin with a recommendation by the High Court collegium, followed by inputs from the State and Union governments and consideration by the Supreme Court collegium.
• The President formally makes the appointment.
• The government may return a recommendation for reconsideration. A reiterated recommendation is conventionally treated as binding.

Assessment

• The system protects judicial independence and limits direct executive control.
• Concerns include opacity, inconsistent selection criteria, inadequate diversity, delayed appointments and the absence of a permanent secretariat.
• Reform should focus on published criteria, recorded reasons, diversity data and clear timelines without making appointments dependent on the executive.

Why in the news

• The Supreme Court is examining the extent of the Bar Council of India’s authority to regulate legal education offered by universities and law colleges.
• Questions have also arisen regarding inspections, accreditation mechanisms and possible overlap with universities, State Bar Councils and the University Grants Commission.

Division of responsibility

• Universities and the UGC regulate academic matters such as degrees, teaching structures and institutional administration.
• The BCI regulates the professional standards required for a law graduate to enrol and practise as an advocate.
• Section 7 of the Advocates Act, 1961 empowers the BCI to promote legal education, prescribe standards in consultation with universities and State Bar Councils, recognise qualifying law degrees and inspect universities.

Why regulation is necessary

• Minimum standards help ensure that law graduates possess adequate knowledge, practical training and ethical understanding.
• Recognition requirements protect litigants and the justice system from poorly trained practitioners.
• Inspections can expose faculty shortages, inadequate libraries and institutions operating without sufficient infrastructure.

Concerns

• Excessive professional control can interfere with university autonomy and innovation.
• Multiple inspections may create duplication, uncertainty and compliance costs.
• Accreditation bodies must avoid conflicts of interest and apply transparent, uniform standards.
• Regulation should improve teaching quality without making legal education unaffordable or inaccessible.

Why in the news

• Opposition parties proposed fresh notices in both Houses seeking the removal of Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar amid allegations concerning the Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls.

Constitutional protection

• Article 324 vests the superintendence, direction and control of elections in the Election Commission of India.
• Under Article 324(5), the CEC can be removed only on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity, in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge.
• This is formally a removal through a parliamentary address, although it is often described as impeachment.
• Other Election Commissioners and Regional Commissioners do not have identical protection: the President may remove them only on the CEC's recommendation. Constitution of India

Parliamentary procedure

1. A notice must be signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha members or 50 Rajya Sabha members.
2. The Speaker or Chairman may admit or refuse it.
3. If admitted, a three-member committee—a Supreme Court judge, a High Court Chief Justice and a distinguished jurist—investigates the charges.
4. If the committee finds a charge proved, each House must adopt the motion in the same session by a majority of its total membership and at least two-thirds of members present and voting.
5. The President then issues the removal order. Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968

Appointment law and recent changes

• The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023 replaced the 1991 law and came into force in 2024.
• A Search Committee headed by the Law Minister prepares a five-person panel. The Selection Committee comprises the Prime Minister, the Lok Sabha Leader of Opposition—or leader of the largest Opposition party—and a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister.
• The President appoints the commissioners. Candidates must have held a post equivalent to Secretary to the Government of India and possess integrity and election-management experience.
• The term is six years or until age 65, whichever is earlier, with no reappointment.
• In Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023), the Supreme Court had temporarily placed the Chief Justice of India on the selection panel until Parliament legislated. The 2023 Act instead provides for a Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister.
• The Bill initially linked salary to the Cabinet Secretary. Amendments adopted before enactment restored parity with a Supreme Court judge; these were changes to the Bill, not a later amendment Act. 2023 Act

Key distinction

• The 2023 Act changed appointment and service conditions; it did not dilute the CEC's special removal protection under Article 324(5).

Why in the news

• The BJP reported expenditure of ₹286.99 crore on the West Bengal Assembly election and ₹529.38 crore across four States and one Union Territory.
• A separate report highlighted unusually large donations received by Registered Unrecognised Political Parties, illustrating what the newspaper called the “murky world of political party finance”.

Static legal framework

• Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 governs registration of political parties; Section 29B permits contributions subject to source restrictions; and Section 29C requires disclosure of contributions above the statutory threshold.
• Section 13A of the Income-tax Act grants conditional tax exemption when prescribed accounts, audits and contribution records are maintained.
• The Election Symbols Order, 1968 separately determines whether a registered party is recognised as a national or State party. Registration, recognition and deregistration are therefore different concepts.

RUPPs and electoral bonds

• Registered Unrecognised Political Parties are registered under Section 29A but do not satisfy the electoral-performance conditions for national or State recognition.
• Loss of recognition or administrative delisting does not necessarily cancel registration. The ECI lacks a broad express power to deregister every inactive party.
• In 2024, the Supreme Court struck down the electoral-bond scheme because donor anonymity impaired voters' right to information under Article 19(1)(a). It also invalidated changes enabling unlimited corporate donations and removing company-wise disclosure of recipient parties.

Concerns and reforms

• Inactive or shell parties can be used to channel money or obtain tax benefits, while merely filing accounts does not establish that expenditure was genuine.
• Reforms should include standardised digital accounts, independent audits, beneficial-ownership disclosure, stronger internal democracy and a carefully safeguarded statutory deregistration process.

Why in the news

• Karnataka reported generating 1.56 crore person-days of employment under the Viksit Bharat–Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) during severe drought.

Concepts and safeguards

• A person-day is one person receiving one day of employment: ten people working for five days create 50 person-days.
• Drought employment provides immediate wages while creating water-conservation and productive rural assets.
• Effective implementation requires transparent muster rolls, timely wage payments, measurement of completed work, social audits and coordination with watershed planning.
• The report does not clarify whether VB-G RAM G is a replacement, additional programme or implementation framework. It should not be automatically equated with MGNREGA without an official scheme document.

Why in the news

• Debate arose over directions promoting all six stanzas of Vande Mataram and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Act, 2026.

Historical background

• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay composed the song in Sanskritised Bengali during the 1870s and published it in Anandamath in 1882.
• Rabindranath Tagore sang it at the 1896 Indian National Congress session.
• In 1937, the Congress Working Committee recommended only the first two stanzas for national gatherings because later stanzas explicitly invoke Hindu deities.

Constitutional position

• On 24 January 1950, Constituent Assembly President Rajendra Prasad stated that Vande Mataram would be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana.
• The Constitution does not formally designate a National Song. Article 51A(a) expressly mentions respect for the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem, but not a National Song.

2026 amendment and freedom of conscience

• According to the report, the amendment extends Section 3 of the 1971 Act—which penalised intentional prevention or disruption of the National Anthem—to the National Song.
• The amendment does not itself define the official version or compel every person to sing. The dispute arises when it is read with executive directions prescribing all six stanzas or mandatory rendition.
• In Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986), the Supreme Court protected students who respectfully stood but declined to sing the National Anthem on conscientious religious grounds.
• The constitutional balance is between respect for national symbols and India's commitment to “unity in diversity” under Articles 19(1)(a) and 25.

Why in the news

• A health article examined how patients and families should be supported when cancer treatment no longer produces the expected benefit. Its central message was that even when treatment changes, “care never does.”

What palliative care means

• Palliative care improves quality of life during serious illness by treating pain, breathlessness, nausea, fatigue, anxiety, social distress, spiritual concerns and caregiver burden.
• It can begin alongside chemotherapy, surgery or other cure-directed treatment; it is not restricted to the final days of life.
• Hospice care is narrower and generally focuses on comfort after cure-directed treatment has stopped and life expectancy is limited.

Communication principles

• Ask how much information the patient wishes to receive, explain prognosis honestly and revisit discussions as the illness changes.
• Discuss goals such as survival, comfort, time at home or avoiding intensive interventions, and identify a surrogate decision-maker before capacity is lost.

Indian framework

• The National Programme for Palliative Care seeks integration with the public-health system.
• The 2014 NDPS amendments simplified legitimate medical access to essential narcotic drugs such as morphine.
• In Common Cause v. Union of India (2018), the Supreme Court recognised advance directives and withdrawal of futile life support under safeguards; the procedure was simplified in 2023.
• Palliative care is neither euthanasia nor abandonment of treatment: its purpose is relief of suffering and informed, patient-centred care.

Why in news?

Census 2027 will provide an open field for recording caste during Population Enumeration. People outside the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe categories may state their caste freely, answer “no caste”, or decline to disclose it. The government has not yet finalised how millions of responses will be rationalised and tabulated.

How the open-field method works

• An enumerator records the respondent’s self-declared answer instead of selecting from a closed list.
• This allows local caste, sub-caste and synonym names to be captured, but spelling variants and overlapping identities make classification difficult.
• The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census reportedly produced about 46 lakh caste descriptions, illustrating the scale of data cleaning required.

Constitutional and statutory background

• Census is a Union subject: Entry 69 of the Union List covers census operations.
• The Census Act, 1948 makes individual responses confidential. The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs conducts the exercise.
• Regular post-Independence censuses have enumerated SCs and STs, but not all castes. Collecting caste data does not by itself alter reservation lists or quotas.

Issues to watch

The exercise could strengthen welfare design and social research, but requires transparent coding rules, privacy safeguards and protection against politicisation. Poor rationalisation may merge distinct groups or multiply identical groups under different names.

Why in news?

The Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister moved a resolution seeking restoration of full Statehood and continuity with the Assembly’s 2000 autonomy resolution. Opposition members objected to linking Statehood with the earlier Article 370 framework.

Present constitutional position

• The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 created the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir with a legislature and the Union Territory of Ladakh without one.
• The J&K Assembly can legislate on subjects available under the Act, but police and public order remain outside its domain.
• An Assembly resolution is a political expression and is not legally sufficient to restore Statehood.

How Statehood can be restored

Parliament must enact legislation under Article 3 of the Constitution on the President’s recommendation. Statehood, restoration of Article 370 and greater autonomy are related political demands but legally distinct questions.

Why in news?

The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 was extended for six months in almost all of Manipur except 13 police-station areas in five valley districts; nine Nagaland districts and 21 police-station areas in five other districts; and three Arunachal Pradesh districts plus three police-station areas in another district.

Key provisions

• Under Section 3, the Union government, Governor or Administrator may declare an area “disturbed”.
• Section 4 permits specified armed-forces personnel, after due warning where required, to use force, arrest and search without warrant, seize property and destroy certain fortified positions or arms dumps.
• Section 6 requires prior Union government sanction before prosecution for acts purportedly done under the law.

Judicial safeguards

In Naga People’s Movement of Human Rights v. Union of India (1997), the Supreme Court upheld AFSPA but prescribed operational safeguards and periodic review. In the EEVFAM case, it clarified that excessive or retaliatory force does not enjoy absolute immunity.

Core debate

AFSPA is defended as an operational tool in areas of prolonged insurgency, while critics point to accountability, proportionality and civil-liberty concerns. A disturbed-area declaration must therefore be periodically and evidence-based reviewed.

Why in news?

A report said that a merchant discount rate for UPI had been specified from October 15, alongside a Finance Ministry and Indian Banks’ Association subsidy intended to prevent the charge from being passed to merchants. The government also announced a ₹2,000-crore incentive for RuPay debit-card and low-value BHIM-UPI transactions.

What is MDR?

The merchant discount rate is paid by a merchant for accepting a digital payment and is shared across participants such as the acquiring bank and payment ecosystem. It is distinct from a convenience fee, which a business may charge directly to the customer.

Why a charge is debated

• Payment systems bear costs for infrastructure, fraud control, cybersecurity, customer support and settlement.
• Zero or very low charges accelerate adoption, especially among small merchants, but may leave providers dependent on budgetary support.
• A subsidy can preserve affordability while compensating providers, although its design and fiscal cost matter.

GST question

MDR is a payment service and its tax treatment falls within the GST framework and the GST Council’s domain. Fuel dealers have separately raised concern over the combined impact of payment charges and taxes on thin retail margins.

Why in news?

Strategic changes involving China and Pakistan, along with cyber, space and hypersonic capabilities, have renewed debate on India’s nuclear doctrine. A doctrine is an “instrument of statecraft, not an immutable policy”: it signals intent while adapting to the security environment.

Core elements of the doctrine

Command and survivability

The Nuclear Command Authority has a Political Council chaired by the Prime Minister and an Executive Council chaired by the National Security Adviser; the Strategic Forces Command manages operational forces. A land-air-sea triad and secure second-strike capacity make deterrence credible by ensuring that a surprise attack cannot eliminate retaliation.

Why in news?

• During the ongoing Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers will visit electors flagged for mapping problems or logical discrepancies and collect documents at their homes.
• Such electors ordinarily need not attend a physical hearing. An exceptional hearing should preferably be online, and an adult family member may be authorised to represent the elector.
• Help desks and special camps will assist homeless people, labourers and other vulnerable groups.
• A committee headed by a Senior Deputy Election Commissioner, with an independent IIT or IIIT expert, will audit whether ECINET complies with electoral laws and rules.
• Special enrolment drives will cover eligible citizens omitted during the revision, while claim and objection deadlines were extended in Delhi and Maharashtra.

What is SIR?

• Special Intensive Revision is a comprehensive verification in which existing entries may be re-examined and eligible citizens asked to establish their eligibility.
• In a summary revision, the existing roll remains the base and is updated through claims and objections.
• Continuous updation allows eligible people to seek inclusion, correction or deletion even between formal revision exercises, except during legally restricted periods.

Constitutional and legal framework

• Article 324 vests the superintendence, direction and control of electoral rolls and elections in the Election Commission.
• Article 325 requires one general electoral roll and prohibits exclusion solely on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
• Article 326 provides for adult suffrage, subject to constitutional and statutory disqualifications.
• The Representation of the People Act, 1950 governs electoral rolls and voter qualifications; the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 prescribe forms and procedures.
• In Mohinder Singh Gill v. Chief Election Commissioner, the Supreme Court recognised broad powers under Article 324, but those powers remain subject to parliamentary law.

Significance and safeguards

Doorstep collection and online hearings can reduce exclusion caused by poverty, migration, disability or inability to attend an office. Because digital errors can affect a citizen's statutory right to vote, the process must still provide clear notice, reasonable response time, access to the material relied upon, a reasoned decision and an effective correction mechanism.

Why in news?

The Delhi High Court held that a marriage recognised under Muslim personal law cannot protect a person from prosecution when the wife was below 18 at the time of sexual intercourse. The court distinguished the legal status of a marriage from criminal liability for sexual activity with a child.

POCSO Act, 2012

• The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act defines a child as every person below 18 and is gender-neutral.
• A child cannot give legally valid consent for sexual activity under POCSO. Willingness, family approval or recognition of a marriage under personal law does not remove criminal liability.
• Section 42A gives POCSO overriding effect where it conflicts with another law.

Relationship with child-marriage law

• Under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, a female below 18 and a male below 21 are children for marriage.
• Most child marriages are voidable at the option of the person who was a child; specified marriages involving force, trafficking or enticement are void.
• A marriage not being automatically void does not make every act within that marriage lawful under criminal law.

Supreme Court position

In Independent Thought v. Union of India (2017), the Supreme Court read down the marital-rape exception then in force so that sexual intercourse with a wife below 18 would constitute rape. The ruling harmonised criminal law with POCSO and child-marriage legislation.

Constitutional relevance

• Article 15(3) permits special provisions for children.
• Article 21 protects life, dignity, bodily integrity and personal autonomy.
• Article 39(f) directs the State to protect children from exploitation and support healthy development.

Why in news?

Andhra Pradesh told the Supreme Court that it would not defend the Union government's 2026 amendments to the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act. A State affidavit does not suspend parliamentary law; its constitutional validity remains for the courts to determine.

Position under the 2019 Act

• The original law broadly covered trans-men, trans-women, genderqueer persons, people with intersex variations and socio-cultural identities.
• Section 4(2) recognised the right to self-perceived gender identity.
• It prohibited discrimination in education, employment, healthcare, housing and public services, provided for identity certificates through the District Magistrate and created the National Council for Transgender Persons.

Changes made in 2026

• The amendment removed the express statutory right to self-perceived gender identity.
• It narrowed the definition mainly to specified socio-cultural identities and congenital or physiological variations.
• Express coverage of trans-men, trans-women and genderqueer persons based solely on self-identification was removed, while recognition became more dependent on medical and administrative certification. PRS legislative summary

NALSA judgment and constitutional questions

In National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India (2014), the Supreme Court recognised transgender people as a third gender and held that self-determination of gender forms part of personal autonomy under Articles 14, 15, 16, 19(1)(a) and 21. The pending challenge asks whether the narrower definition arbitrarily excludes people, medicalises identity and burdens dignity, privacy and access to welfare.

Important distinction

Transgender identity concerns a person's gender identity; an intersex variation concerns congenital variations in sex characteristics. They may overlap in an individual case but are not interchangeable.

Why in news?

At the UN High-Level Meeting on pandemic preparedness, India called for a fair Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing system, or PABS, under the WHO Pandemic Agreement. Countries sharing pathogens and biological resources should receive timely access to vaccines, diagnostics, therapeutics and technologies. The Union Health Secretary said, “Global solidarity must be demonstrated through action.”

World Health Organization

Structure and functions

• The World Health Assembly is the supreme decision-making body of all Member States.
• The Executive Board has 34 technically qualified members elected for three-year terms and facilitates Assembly decisions.
• The Secretariat is headed by the Director-General and works through headquarters, six regional offices and country offices.
• WHO sets health standards, coordinates emergencies, monitors disease, supports vaccination and disease-control programmes, and provides technical assistance. WHO governance

Pandemic Agreement

• Adopted by the World Health Assembly on May 20, 2025 after inequities exposed by COVID-19.
• It is the second international agreement negotiated under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution, after the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.
• It covers surveillance, One Health, health-system resilience, research, local production, technology transfer, supply chains, workforce protection and equitable access.
• It is not yet in force. The PABS annex must be completed and adopted before the agreement opens for signature and ratification; 60 ratifications are required for entry into force. WHO Pandemic Agreement

How PABS works

Countries rapidly share biological samples and genetic-sequence information for pathogens with pandemic potential. Researchers and manufacturers use them to develop tests, vaccines and treatments; benefits arising from their use must then be shared fairly, especially according to public-health need.

India's interests and a key distinction

• India wants developing countries that supply pathogen data to receive products and technology on time, while national sovereignty over biological resources is respected.
• It also seeks recognition of digital public infrastructure as a global public good and nationally appropriate implementation of One Health.
• The International Health Regulations, 2005 provide operational rules for reporting and responding to cross-border health threats. The Pandemic Agreement is broader, covering preparedness, manufacturing, financing, technology and equity.

Why in news?

Research highlighted the possibility that exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate, or PFOS, can interfere with the immune system's response to viral infections.

What is PFOS?

• PFOS belongs to the family of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS.
• Very strong carbon–fluorine bonds make these chemicals resistant to heat, water, oil and natural degradation, earning them the name “forever chemicals.”
• Historical uses include firefighting foams, stain- and water-resistant textiles, grease-resistant coatings, metal plating and industrial surfactants.
• PFOS can persist in water and soil, enter food chains and accumulate in humans and animals.

How can it affect immunity?

• T cells identify infected cells and coordinate immune responses; B cells produce antibodies.
• Cytokines are signalling proteins used by immune cells. Interferon-gamma is important in cellular defence against viruses.
• Experimental evidence indicates that PFOS may alter T-cell activation, proliferation and cytokine production, including interferon-gamma. NCBI review of mechanistic evidence

Regulation and caution

PFOS is listed in Annex B of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which restricts its production and use subject to limited exemptions. Laboratory and animal studies use different exposure levels and do not all produce identical results; they indicate potential mechanisms, not proof that every trace exposure causes viral illness.