UPSC current affairs, 24-30 Aug, 2026

• The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre, or IN-SPACe, has issued India’s first guidelines for the planned re-entry of space objects.
• Re-entry means bringing a spacecraft, satellite or launch-vehicle component back into Earth’s atmosphere.

• It includes objects designed to survive atmospheric entry or intentionally directed towards a defined landing or impact zone.
• Natural orbital decay, where an object is expected to burn up or fragment harmlessly, is treated differently.
• Indian entities require IN-SPACe authorisation for planned re-entry, whether the operation occurs over India or elsewhere.
• A foreign operator planning re-entry over an area under Indian jurisdiction must operate through an Indian-incorporated entity responsible for compliance.

• The expected risk of casualty on the ground must remain below one in 10,000.
• Operators must assess:
• Possible fragmentation;
• Components likely to survive re-entry;
• Failure scenarios;
• Batteries, pressure vessels and other hazardous systems;
• Flight path and potential impact zones.
• Updated parameters are re-examined before the operation.
• Warnings must be issued for affected airspace and maritime areas.

• Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty requires States to avoid harmful interference.
• Under the Liability Convention, 1972, a launching State bears absolute liability for damage caused by its space object on Earth’s surface or to aircraft in flight.
• Indian operators must carry suitable third-party insurance and remain responsible for claims arising from their operations.

• Researchers used genome-language models to design complete genomes of bacteriophages—viruses that infect bacteria.
• Of 285 artificial intelligence-generated designs synthesised and tested, 16 produced functioning phages.
• Some worked against bacterial strains that resisted the original virus.

• Ordinary language models learn relationships among words and sentences.
• Genome models learn patterns in the four-letter genetic alphabet: adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine.
• The models can propose new DNA sequences that remain biologically coherent.
• In this experiment, the models generated previously unseen genomes related to the bacteriophage ΦX174.

Artificial intelligence did not physically manufacture the viruses. Researchers selected the designs, synthesised the DNA and tested it in Escherichia coli.

• Designing bacteriophages against antibiotic-resistant bacteria;
• Producing vaccine antigens;
• Designing antibodies and therapeutic proteins;
• Developing viral vectors for gene therapy;
• Improving viruses that selectively attack cancer cells.

• The same technology could help design harmful biological systems.
• Artificial intelligence can examine combinations of mutations much faster than researchers working manually.
• A low success rate may not provide sufficient protection when computers can generate millions of candidates.
• Traditional DNA-screening systems mainly compare ordered sequences with known pathogens. Future screening may also have to examine the biological function of a sequence.

• Controlled access for legitimate researchers;
• Screening by DNA-synthesis companies;
• Institutional biosafety oversight;
• Auditable use of powerful biological models;
• Secure computing infrastructure and reliable biomedical datasets.

• A 2026 amendment extended the criminal-law protection available to the National Anthem to Vande Mataram.
• The debate concerns whether protecting the song can be interpreted as compelling citizens to sing it.

• The Constitution does not use the expression “National Song”.
• On 24 January 1950, Constituent Assembly President Rajendra Prasad stated that Vande Mataram, because of its role in the freedom struggle, would be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana.
• This did not make it the National Anthem or a co-anthem.

• Vande Mataram appeared in Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel Anandamath.
• Its first two stanzas describe the motherland through rivers, fields, fruits and cooling winds.
• Later stanzas contain explicitly devotional imagery involving Hindu goddesses.
• In 1937, the Congress Working Committee limited official rendition to the first two stanzas to accommodate religious objections.

• Intentionally preventing the singing of the National Anthem or National Song;
• Causing a disturbance to an assembly engaged in singing them.

It does not:

• Compel every person present to sing;
• Prescribe that all six stanzas must be rendered;
• Criminalise respectful silence.

**The Bijoe Emmanuel principle**

• In Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986), three Jehovah’s Witness students stood respectfully during the National Anthem but did not sing because of their religious beliefs.
• The Supreme Court protected their conduct under Article 19(1)(a), which includes the right to remain silent, and Article 25, which protects freedom of conscience.
• Fundamental duties cannot be used to extinguish fundamental rights.

• A political controversy arose after the Lok Sabha remained unprorogued for ten days following its adjournment sine die.
• The Constitution does not prescribe a fixed number of days within which prorogation must follow adjournment.

• Suspends a sitting for a specified period.
• Ordered by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha or Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
• Does not terminate the parliamentary session.

• Ends a sitting without fixing a date for the next sitting.
• Ordered by the presiding officer.
• The House may still formally remain in session until it is prorogued.

• Terminates an entire session of one House.
• Formally ordered by the President under Article 85(2), acting on ministerial advice.
• The two Houses may be prorogued on different dates.
• A Bill does not lapse merely because a House has been prorogued.

• Ends the life of the Lok Sabha itself.
• The Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and cannot be dissolved.
• Dissolution can cause certain pending Bills to lapse, subject to Article 107.

• A House that has been adjourned sine die technically remains in session.
• Prorogation closes the session and enables preparations for a new one.
• Article 85 also requires that no more than six months may pass between the last sitting of one session and the first sitting of the next.

• The Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee criticised delays in acting against mining around Kaziranga National Park’s southern boundary.
• It also flagged the failure to complete a watershed analysis and notify nine identified animal corridors.

• Kaziranga lies in the Brahmaputra floodplain.
• Seasonal floods are essential for maintaining its wetlands and grasslands.
• During severe floods, animals move from the low-lying park towards the higher Karbi Anglong hills.
• Corridors connecting these landscapes are therefore survival routes for rhinoceroses, elephants, tigers and other wildlife.

• Quarrying can alter natural drainage and increase sediment entering streams.
• Blasting, heavy vehicles and human activity disturb animal movement.
• Roads and buildings can narrow or block wildlife corridors.
• Mining in elephant habitat increases the likelihood of human–elephant conflict.
• Damage to catchments affects water flowing from the Karbi Anglong hills into Kaziranga.

• A 2019 Supreme Court order restricted mining and related activity along Kaziranga’s southern boundary and in the catchments of rivers and streams flowing into the park.
• New construction was also restricted on private land forming part of identified animal corridors.
• The Central Empowered Committee subsequently sought:
• A watershed and drainage analysis;
• Action against illegal mining;
• Periodic compliance reports;
• Formal notification and protection of the corridors.

• Landscape-level regulation extending beyond the park boundary;
• Restoration of damaged catchments;
• Legally protected wildlife corridors;
• Regulation of traffic and construction;
• Coordination between the Assam government and the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council.

The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Amendment Act, 2026 expands the corporation’s financing and operational powers. Some farmers’ organisations have argued that the changes could weaken the States’ constitutional authority over cooperative societies.

• NCDC is a statutory corporation established under the National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962.
• It functions under the Ministry of Cooperation.
• It finances cooperatives involved in agriculture, processing, storage, marketing, dairy, fisheries and other economic activities.

• NCDC can provide financial assistance more directly to eligible cooperative institutions.
• Its ability to participate in the share capital of cooperatives has been expanded.
• The earlier rural-location restriction for certain industrial and village cooperatives has been relaxed.
• Its coverage has been extended beyond traditional agricultural activities.

• Entry 32 of the State List gives States authority over the incorporation, regulation and winding up of cooperative societies operating within a State.
• Parliament primarily regulates multi-State cooperative societies.
• In Union of India v. Rajendra N. Shah (2021), the Supreme Court held that provisions introduced by the 97th Constitutional Amendment could not regulate State cooperatives without ratification by at least half the States. The provisions concerning multi-State cooperatives were retained.
• Critics fear that direct central financing and equity participation may allow the Union to influence cooperatives that ordinarily fall under State jurisdiction.

Meteorological agencies have warned that the developing 2026 El Niño could become one of the strongest recorded, with important consequences for global temperatures and rainfall.

El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It occurs when the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean becomes unusually warm.

During El Niño:

• Pacific trade winds weaken.
• Warm surface water shifts eastwards.
• Cold-water upwelling near Peru and Ecuador declines.
• The Walker atmospheric circulation becomes weaker or changes position.

• Reduced rainfall over parts of India, Southeast Asia and Australia.
• Increased rainfall along the western coast of South America.
• Changes in tropical cyclone patterns.
• Marine ecosystem and fisheries disruption due to weaker upwelling.
• A temporary rise in global average temperature.

El Niño is frequently associated with a weaker southwest monsoon, but the relationship is not automatic. The Indian Ocean Dipole, Eurasian snow cover, local sea-surface temperatures and intraseasonal monsoon conditions can modify its impact.

El Niño is a natural climate phenomenon, while climate change is a long-term warming trend. Their combined effect can produce exceptionally high temperatures and more severe weather extremes. WMO assessment

India has revised parts of the investment restrictions introduced through Press Note 3 of 2020 for investors connected with countries sharing a land border with India.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an investment made by a foreign individual or entity in an enterprise located in another country, usually with the intention of establishing a lasting economic interest.

FDI may bring:

• Long-term capital.
• Technology and managerial expertise.
• Employment and export opportunities.
• Integration with global supply chains.

Unlike Foreign Portfolio Investment, which is primarily an investment in financial securities, FDI generally involves a more durable interest or influence over the enterprise.

India permits FDI through two routes:

• Automatic route: No prior Union government approval is required, subject to sectoral limits and conditions.
• Government route: Prior approval of the competent ministry or department is required.

It required government approval when:

• The investing entity was based in a country sharing a land border with India; or
• The beneficial owner of the investment was situated in, or was a citizen of, such a country.

A beneficial owner is the person or entity that ultimately owns or controls an investment, even if it is routed through companies registered elsewhere.

The restriction was introduced during the COVID-19 economic disruption to prevent opportunistic acquisition of financially distressed Indian companies.

The 2026 revision allows certain investments under the automatic route where the land-border-country beneficial ownership is:

• Non-controlling; and
• Within the prescribed threshold of 10%.

Sectoral caps, security conditions and disclosure requirements continue to apply. Investments involving control or falling outside the relaxation remain subject to government scrutiny.

The change seeks to facilitate legitimate capital flows while retaining safeguards for national security, sensitive technology, data and strategic infrastructure. Official FDI update

The Union government has sought clarification of the Supreme Court’s judgment in Union of India v. Rohith Nathan concerning the determination of the creamy layer among Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

• The creamy-layer principle was laid down in Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992).
• It excludes the socially advanced sections of OBCs from reservation benefits.
• Its purpose is to ensure that reservation reaches genuinely backward members of the community.
• The principle presently applies to OBC reservation, not to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the same manner.

The Court held that:

• Salary income alone cannot mechanically determine whether an OBC candidate belongs to the creamy layer.
• The status and position held by the candidate’s parents are central considerations.
• Children of employees of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), banks or private organisations cannot be treated less favourably than similarly placed children of government employees merely because their parents earn a higher salary.
• Where equivalence between a non-government post and a government post has not been formally established, income cannot substitute entirely for an examination of occupational status.

Treating similarly placed persons differently may violate:

• Article 14: equality before law.
• Article 16: equality of opportunity in public employment.

Retrospective application could require:

• reconsideration of earlier appointments;
• changes in cadre allocation and seniority;
• creation of supernumerary posts; and
• adjustment of candidates already appointed to particular services.

A supernumerary post is an additional post created beyond the normal sanctioned strength to accommodate a person without displacing an existing employee. It usually ends when it is no longer required.

The government must create a clear method for equating positions in PSUs, banks, universities and private organisations with government posts. Otherwise, creamy-layer decisions may remain inconsistent.

Supreme Court judgment

Two developments renewed debate over religious freedom:

• The Allahabad High Court held that wearing the hijab had not been established before it as an Essential Religious Practice of Islam in a school-uniform dispute.
• Civil-society groups raised concerns about provisions of the Maharashtra Freedom of Religion Act, 2026.

Article 25 guarantees every person:

• freedom of conscience;
• the right to profess religion;
• the right to practise religion; and
• the right to propagate religion.

These rights are subject to:

• public order;
• morality;
• health;
• other Fundamental Rights; and
• the State’s power to regulate secular activities connected with religion.

The right to propagate a faith does not include a right to convert another person through force, fraud or coercion.

The Supreme Court developed the Essential Religious Practices doctrine in the Shirur Mutt case (1954).

Under it, courts examine whether a disputed practice is:

• fundamental to a religion;
• integral to its doctrines; and
• regarded as essential by the religious community.

The doctrine is criticised because it requires judges to decide questions of religious theology.

The Karnataka hijab litigation reached the Supreme Court in 2022, but the two judges delivered a split verdict. It therefore did not produce a conclusive majority ruling on the merits.

Religious clothing can also involve:

• Article 19(1)(a): freedom of expression;
• Article 21: dignity, privacy and personal autonomy;
• Article 14: equal treatment; and
• Article 15: protection against religious and gender discrimination.

While States may prohibit forced or fraudulent conversion, constitutional concerns arise when a law:

• defines “allurement” too broadly;
• permits unrelated third parties to initiate complaints;
• reverses the normal burden of proof;
• makes offences broadly cognisable and non-bailable; or
• indirectly restricts voluntary interfaith marriage or individual choice.

The draft electoral roll published after the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Karnataka reportedly excluded more than one crore existing names. Some highly urbanised constituencies experienced exceptionally large reductions.

• Article 324 vests the supervision and control of elections in the Election Commission of India (ECI).
• Article 326 provides for elections based on adult suffrage.
• Preparation and revision of rolls are governed mainly by the Representation of the People Act, 1950 and the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960.

A voter must ordinarily be:

• an Indian citizen;
• at least 18 years old;
• ordinarily resident in the constituency; and
• not otherwise disqualified by law.

• Form 6: inclusion of a new voter.
• Form 7: objection to an entry or request for deletion.
• Form 8: correction of particulars or shifting of residence.

Except in confirmed cases of death, a name should not normally be removed without verification, notice and an opportunity to respond.

It can disproportionately affect:

• migrant workers;
• tenants and frequently shifting urban residents;
• homeless persons;
• women who move after marriage;
• students;
• elderly voters; and
• people lacking easily accessible documents.

The main reported reason for deletion was that voters had “shifted”. However, temporary absence does not necessarily mean that a person has stopped being ordinarily resident.

The Electoral Population Ratio compares the number of registered electors with the estimated population aged 18 and above. An unusually low ratio can indicate under-registration or excessive deletion.

• searchable constituency-wise deletion lists;
• reasons recorded against each deletion;
• demographic and gender-disaggregated data;
• notice and hearing before removal;
• simple claims and appeal procedures; and
• independent audits where deletion rates are unusually high.

ECI electoral-roll FAQ

The Constitution does not expressly mention a collegium. It evolved through Supreme Court judgments interpreting:

• Article 124: appointment of Supreme Court judges;
• Article 217: appointment of High Court judges.

• First Judges Case, 1981: gave greater weight to the executive.
• Second Judges Case, 1993: established judicial primacy and the collegium.
• Third Judges Case, 1998: expanded and clarified the collegium’s composition.
• NJAC judgment, 2015: invalidated the National Judicial Appointments Commission and the 99th Constitutional Amendment for violating judicial independence, part of the basic structure.

For Supreme Court appointments, the collegium ordinarily consists of the Chief Justice of India and four senior-most Supreme Court judges.

The system is criticised because:

• there is no publicly advertised application process;
• eligibility and assessment criteria are not fully standardised;
• reasons for choosing one candidate over another may remain limited;
• representation of women and marginalised communities remains inadequate;
• allegations of favouritism are difficult to evaluate; and
• government and collegium delays create judicial vacancies.

The Supreme Court has started publishing:

• collegium resolutions;
• basic reasons for some recommendations;
• information regarding candidates’ relationships with sitting or retired judges; and
• broader data about the appointment process.

Greater disclosure can improve accountability, but unrestricted publication of intelligence or integrity reports can harm candidates’ reputations and discourage capable lawyers from accepting judgeship.

A balanced system should therefore publish:

• objective eligibility criteria;
• broad reasons for selection or non-selection;
• diversity-related data;
• timelines for each stage; and
• final decisions on returned recommendations,

while keeping genuinely sensitive personal information confidential.

Supreme Court collegium resolutions

Environmental groups have questioned whether a Supreme Court-appointed committee examining the definition and demarcation of the Aravalli range is conducting sufficient field investigation, scientific assessment and public consultation.

• The Aravallis are among the world’s oldest fold-mountain systems.
• They extend from Gujarat through Rajasthan and Haryana to Delhi.
• Their general alignment is south-west to north-east.

The range:

• limits the eastward movement of desert sand and dust from the Thar;
• supports groundwater recharge;
• moderates temperatures around the National Capital Region;
• contains forests, scrublands, wetlands and wildlife corridors;
• forms catchments for several seasonal rivers; and
• connects habitats used by leopards, hyenas and other wildlife.

• illegal and legal mining;
• quarrying and hill cutting;
• urban expansion;
• roads and infrastructure;
• fragmentation of wildlife corridors;
• encroachment;
• invasive species; and
• inconsistent definitions adopted by different States.

A narrow definition based only on visible hills can leave foothills, valleys, recharge areas and connecting habitats unprotected.

• satellite and geospatial mapping;
• field-level ground-truthing;
• geological continuity;
• drainage and groundwater systems;
• wildlife corridors;
• forest and scrub ecosystems; and
• local-community consultation.

A cumulative environmental impact assessment should examine the combined effects of mining, roads and construction across the entire landscape rather than assessing every project in isolation.

The main challenge is to establish a uniform, scientifically defensible definition that protects ecological continuity across State boundaries.

Supreme Court order concerning the Aravalli committee

• It provides constitutional arrangements for tribal self-government in specified areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• It is associated with Article 244(2) on administration of tribal areas and Article 275(1) on grants.
• Its purpose is to protect tribal identity, customary institutions and local control over specified matters while keeping these areas within the State’s constitutional framework.
• Meghalaya has three Autonomous District Councils: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills. Their territories are not necessarily identical to present-day administrative districts. Meghalaya District Council Affairs Department

• Each autonomous district has an Autonomous District Council (ADC).
• The general rule provides for up to 30 members, including up to four nominated by the Governor; the remaining members are elected through adult suffrage. Special provisions create exceptions.
• Elected members ordinarily serve five years.
• Where different Scheduled Tribes inhabit an autonomous district, the Governor may create autonomous regions with separate Regional Councils.
• The Governor has specified powers concerning boundaries, council arrangements and oversight. Council laws under Paragraph 3 require the Governor’s assent. Sixth Schedule text

• Legislative: Make laws on specified matters, including land use and allotment, non-reserved forests, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance, marriage and social customs.
• Executive: Establish or manage facilities such as primary schools, dispensaries, markets, ferries and local roads.
• Judicial: Constitute village councils or courts for specified disputes involving Scheduled Tribe parties, subject to constitutional limits.
• Financial: Assess and collect land revenue and levy specified local taxes. District and Regional Funds receive council revenues; their accounts are audited by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG). CAG’s explanation of council functions

• Mining affects community land, customary livelihoods, forests and water sources.
• Paragraph 9 provides for sharing specified mineral-licence or lease royalties between the State and the District Council.
• However, council autonomy does not create unrestricted ownership of all minerals or a blanket veto over central laws. Uranium also falls within the Union’s atomic-energy regulatory framework. Sixth Schedule, Paragraph 9

• Overlapping authority among councils, State departments and traditional institutions.
• Limited revenue and administrative capacity.
• Balancing resource development with environmental safeguards and community participation.

• The 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985 inserted the Tenth Schedule.
• A party legislator can be disqualified for voluntarily giving up membership or voting/abstaining against an authorised party direction without permission, unless condoned within 15 days.
• An independent legislator attracts disqualification by joining a political party after election. A nominated member may join a party within six months of taking their seat.
• The merger exception requires the prescribed conditions, including agreement by at least two-thirds of the legislature party.
• The 91st Amendment, 2003 removed the one-third “split” exception.
• The Speaker or Chairman decides disqualification petitions, subject to judicial review.

• Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992): Upheld the anti-defection framework and established that the Speaker’s disqualification decisions are subject to judicial review.
• Ravi S. Naik v. Union of India (1994): Voluntarily giving up party membership need not involve formal resignation; it can be inferred from conduct.
• Keisham Meghachandra Singh v. Speaker, Manipur Legislative Assembly (2020): Disqualification petitions should ordinarily be decided within three months of filing, unless exceptional circumstances justify a longer period.

The remaining case laws will be removed.

• Delayed decisions can defeat the purpose of disqualification.
• The Speaker’s political affiliation raises concerns about neutrality.
• Strong party control can discourage legitimate legislative scrutiny.

Reform direction: Time-bound decisions, transparent procedures and consideration of an independent tribunal. The tribunal proposal is a recommendation—not an existing constitutional arrangement.

• Fog, rain, vegetation and wildlife can generate false alarms.
• Remote locations face power and connectivity constraints.
• Equipment from different suppliers must work together securely.
• Human verification remains essential before operational action.

The reported proposal should not be confused with a fully operational nationwide network.

• 34 surveys during May 2011–February 2014 recorded 743 vultures belonging to five species.
• Researchers found 46 vulture carcasses attributed to electrocution near power infrastructure.
• The dumping site was shifted approximately 2.4 km away in April 2015. Limited subsequent monitoring recorded no electrocution deaths, but there was no follow-up study after 2015.

Large birds can be electrocuted when their bodies bridge two live conductors or a live conductor and an earthed component.

The four Critically Endangered vultures found in India will come first, followed by the three species highlighted in the electrocution study.

These categories are documented in the Wildlife Institute of India’s vulture assessment.

• CITES: Appendix II—international trade is regulated. CITES appendices
• Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I. Official schedule

• Locate feeding and carcass-disposal sites away from hazardous power lines.
• Insulate dangerous components and use bird-safe pole designs.
• Address poisoning, toxic veterinary drugs and loss of safe food sources alongside electrocution.

• Trampling, flower collection, litter and unauthorised trails.
• Conversion of grasslands into plantations or infrastructure.
• Invasive plants and poorly planned tourism facilities.

Permitted trails, visitor limits and protection of natural grasslands are more appropriate than unrestricted access during flowering.